Fluency
What is Fluency?
_* Fluency
refers to reading that is smooth, expressive, accurate, and at a conversational
pace. "Fluency is the ability to read a text accurately and quickly. When fluent readers read silently, they recognize words automatically. They group words quickly in ways that help them gain meaning from what they read. Fluent readers read aloud effortlessly and with expression. Their reading sounds natural, as if they are speaking" (Heibert, E.A., Lehr, F., & Osborn, J, 2003)
* There are three factors that influence fluency. These factors include: (Mckenna & Stahl, 2009, p. 148)
§ Accuracy- the ability to read words correctly
· When text is not read accurately, comprehension suffers
§ Automaticity- the ability to read words without conscious effort
· When words are read automatically readers can devote more mental energy to comprehension rather than decoding words
§ Prosody- the ability to read with expression and proper phrasing of words
· Prosody is seen as an indication that children are understanding parts of speech in sentences (Mckenna & Stahl, 2009, p. 149)
· There are many dimensions of prosody in relation to fluent reading. These dimensions include:
¨ Expression and volume
¨ Phrasing
¨ Smoothness
¨ Pace
* There are three factors that influence fluency. These factors include: (Mckenna & Stahl, 2009, p. 148)
§ Accuracy- the ability to read words correctly
· When text is not read accurately, comprehension suffers
§ Automaticity- the ability to read words without conscious effort
· When words are read automatically readers can devote more mental energy to comprehension rather than decoding words
§ Prosody- the ability to read with expression and proper phrasing of words
· Prosody is seen as an indication that children are understanding parts of speech in sentences (Mckenna & Stahl, 2009, p. 149)
· There are many dimensions of prosody in relation to fluent reading. These dimensions include:
¨ Expression and volume
¨ Phrasing
¨ Smoothness
¨ Pace
Why is Fluency Important?
* Fluent reading allows for more focus on comprehension : (Fluency PPT)
§ Automaticity is important to reading text. The more a student reads the better they become at reading processes like decoding and word recognition which allows them to read words without conscious effort, which decreases the amount of energy they have to devote to lower reading processes, and allows for that energy to be focused on comprehension
§ Prosody is also important to reading text. The use of features of prosody such as intonation, stress/loudness, timing, and grouping words into phrases indicates a deeper level of processing of the text and reflects comprehension (Comprehension PPT)
· Example: fluent readers understand that punctuation marks tell them where and how long to pause and what kind of intonation/pitch they should use when reading a sentence. These readers then use this information quickly and usually without conscious effort to create meaning while they are reading (Heibert, E.A., Lehr, F., & Osborn, J, 2003)
§ Automaticity is important to reading text. The more a student reads the better they become at reading processes like decoding and word recognition which allows them to read words without conscious effort, which decreases the amount of energy they have to devote to lower reading processes, and allows for that energy to be focused on comprehension
§ Prosody is also important to reading text. The use of features of prosody such as intonation, stress/loudness, timing, and grouping words into phrases indicates a deeper level of processing of the text and reflects comprehension (Comprehension PPT)
· Example: fluent readers understand that punctuation marks tell them where and how long to pause and what kind of intonation/pitch they should use when reading a sentence. These readers then use this information quickly and usually without conscious effort to create meaning while they are reading (Heibert, E.A., Lehr, F., & Osborn, J, 2003)
How is Fluency Expected to Develop?
* Fluency typically develops in a stage- like manner, gradually, over time through extensive reading practice for children that have some basic knowledge about words (Fluency PPT)
* Fluency development is dependent upon a reader's ability to decode, recognize words, and use features (such as punctuation) during reading. If a reader has not mastered these word level processes and prosodic f, then they are likely to have poor fluency.
§ Ways in which readers read words that influence fluency include: (Sound Letter Knowledge II PPT)
· "Decoding- Identifying the sounds of individual letters or clusters of letters or groups of letters and blending them
· Analogy- Recognizing new words based on words that are already known
· Prediction- Guessing what words may be based on initial letters , context cues and words before and after the word in the text
· Sight- Reading words that have been committed to memory automatically" (Sound Letter Knowledge II PPT)
§ Readers who struggle with fluency may not be applying these strategies for reading words
* The level of difficulty of a text in relation to a reader's proficiency also plays a role in determining a reader's fluency on that particular text (Fluency PPT)
* A readers level of fluency also varies depending on how familiar they are with the words in a text and also with the subject of the text (Heibert, E.A., Lehr, F., & Osborn, J, 2003)
§ For example, even adult readers can struggle with fluency when reading a text that contains unfamiliar technical vocabulary or is written about a topic that they have little background knowledge about
* It is possible that a reader can struggle with certain aspects of fluency but not others (Fluency PPT)
§ Example: A student may have good accuracy and automaticity but could have trouble with expression and phrasing
* Fluency development is dependent upon a reader's ability to decode, recognize words, and use features (such as punctuation) during reading. If a reader has not mastered these word level processes and prosodic f, then they are likely to have poor fluency.
§ Ways in which readers read words that influence fluency include: (Sound Letter Knowledge II PPT)
· "Decoding- Identifying the sounds of individual letters or clusters of letters or groups of letters and blending them
· Analogy- Recognizing new words based on words that are already known
· Prediction- Guessing what words may be based on initial letters , context cues and words before and after the word in the text
· Sight- Reading words that have been committed to memory automatically" (Sound Letter Knowledge II PPT)
§ Readers who struggle with fluency may not be applying these strategies for reading words
* The level of difficulty of a text in relation to a reader's proficiency also plays a role in determining a reader's fluency on that particular text (Fluency PPT)
* A readers level of fluency also varies depending on how familiar they are with the words in a text and also with the subject of the text (Heibert, E.A., Lehr, F., & Osborn, J, 2003)
§ For example, even adult readers can struggle with fluency when reading a text that contains unfamiliar technical vocabulary or is written about a topic that they have little background knowledge about
* It is possible that a reader can struggle with certain aspects of fluency but not others (Fluency PPT)
§ Example: A student may have good accuracy and automaticity but could have trouble with expression and phrasing
How can Fluency be Assessed?
* Fluency can be assessed by evaluating the accuracy, automaticity and prosody of an individual's reading (Fluency PPT)
§ Automaticity is assessed using the rate of reading of words correct per minute (Mckenna & Stahl, 2009, p.149)
· Rate: (Total number of words read - Number of errors) / Minutes read = Words correct per minute
¨ Hasbrouck and Tindal's (2006) Oral Reading Fluency Data chart (Mckenna & Stahl, 2009, p.152) displays norms for reading rate in words correct per minute on curriculum based measurements for grades 1-8 at different points in the school year
¨ When assessing rate it is important to make sure to tell the reader that they will be assessed on their understanding of the text so that they do not simply try to read as fast as they can without comprehension (Fluency PPT)
§ Accuracy is calculated as a percentage of words read correctly per minute
· Accuracy: Number of words read correctly / Total number of words read = Percent accuracy
¨ When counting errors to determine accuracy it is important to be consistent
¨ These are guidelines commonly used for determining reading level on a particular text in relation to accuracy: (Fluency PPT)
- Independent Level: 95-100%
- Instructional Level: 90-94%
- Frustration Level: Below 90%
¨ It is important to keep in mind that to determine reading level, comprehension must also be taken into account
§ Prosody is rated on a scale (Fluency PPT)
· Prosody scales:
¨ NAEP Scale- straightforward, 4 level scale that addresses phrasing, syntax and expression (Mckenna & Stahl, 2009, p 149)
¨ Multidimensional Fluency Scale- A more refined measure of fluency that provides a cumulative and measurable score for the dimensions of prosody including smoothness, phrasing, expression and volume, and pace (Mckenna & Stahl, 2009, p. 150)
* DIBELS Oral Reading Fluency assessment can be used to assess fluency (Mckenna & Stahl, 2009, p. 153)
§ This assessment is first administered in the middle of first grade
§ The child reads 3 passages out loud and is stopped on each after a minute. The words correct per minute on each is calculated and the middle number is used to determine if they are "at risk", "at some risk" or "at low risk" for reading difficulties
§ Each year 3 benchmark passages are given (at one time) and other passages can be given to monitor progress throughout the year
§ A retelling to assess comprehension on the passages is also suggested
§ Automaticity is assessed using the rate of reading of words correct per minute (Mckenna & Stahl, 2009, p.149)
· Rate: (Total number of words read - Number of errors) / Minutes read = Words correct per minute
¨ Hasbrouck and Tindal's (2006) Oral Reading Fluency Data chart (Mckenna & Stahl, 2009, p.152) displays norms for reading rate in words correct per minute on curriculum based measurements for grades 1-8 at different points in the school year
¨ When assessing rate it is important to make sure to tell the reader that they will be assessed on their understanding of the text so that they do not simply try to read as fast as they can without comprehension (Fluency PPT)
§ Accuracy is calculated as a percentage of words read correctly per minute
· Accuracy: Number of words read correctly / Total number of words read = Percent accuracy
¨ When counting errors to determine accuracy it is important to be consistent
¨ These are guidelines commonly used for determining reading level on a particular text in relation to accuracy: (Fluency PPT)
- Independent Level: 95-100%
- Instructional Level: 90-94%
- Frustration Level: Below 90%
¨ It is important to keep in mind that to determine reading level, comprehension must also be taken into account
§ Prosody is rated on a scale (Fluency PPT)
· Prosody scales:
¨ NAEP Scale- straightforward, 4 level scale that addresses phrasing, syntax and expression (Mckenna & Stahl, 2009, p 149)
¨ Multidimensional Fluency Scale- A more refined measure of fluency that provides a cumulative and measurable score for the dimensions of prosody including smoothness, phrasing, expression and volume, and pace (Mckenna & Stahl, 2009, p. 150)
* DIBELS Oral Reading Fluency assessment can be used to assess fluency (Mckenna & Stahl, 2009, p. 153)
§ This assessment is first administered in the middle of first grade
§ The child reads 3 passages out loud and is stopped on each after a minute. The words correct per minute on each is calculated and the middle number is used to determine if they are "at risk", "at some risk" or "at low risk" for reading difficulties
§ Each year 3 benchmark passages are given (at one time) and other passages can be given to monitor progress throughout the year
§ A retelling to assess comprehension on the passages is also suggested
Instructional Strategies for Addressing Fluency
* According to the findings of studies reviewed by Kuhn and Stahl (2003): (Fluency PPT)
§ Fluency instruction is typically effective
§ Assisted approaches are more beneficial than unassisted approaches
· Assisted reading is more effective than repeated reading (Mckenna & Stahl, 2009, p. 154)
§ Productive fluency instruction includes features of prosody such as rhythm and expression
* To help students improve their fluency it is important that teachers give them appropriate texts to read in terms of their reading abilities and expose them to strategies that will help them develop better fluency (Fluency PPT)
§ Strategies/instruction that improves oral reading fluency include:
· Teacher modeling of fluent reading
· Opportunities to participate in guided oral reading
· Opportunities for easy materials to be read independently by students
* Some instructional strategies for fluency that can be used in the classroom include:
§ Echo Reading
· The teacher reads a section of the text out loud while the students read silently along, then when the teacher is finished the students echo the section back (Mckenna & Stahl, 2009, p. 154)
§ Repeated Reading
· Students read the same text over and over until they reach a particular level of fluency (Mckenna & Stahl, 2009, p. 154)
§ Tape Reading
· A long passage is read by a teacher and recorded on tape. The student reads along with the tape until they are able to read the story fluently and then they read to the teacher who determines whether the reading is acceptable in terms of fluency (Mckenna & Stahl, 2009, p. 155)
§ Paired Reading
· An adult partners with a struggling reader and begins reading the passage in a book chosen by both participants. The adult and struggling reader start by reading together and the student will tap the adults arm when they feel comfortable reading aloud themselves. When they make a mistake the adult helps them and then they start to read simultaneously again until the reader signals that they are ready to read solo again (Mckenna & Stahl, 2009, p. 157)
* One entertaining and engaging instructional strategy for improving readers' fluency is through Readers Theater
§ Children are assigned roles in a play and repeatedly practice reading their speaking parts in the play
§ There are no props used and the readers are not supposed to memorize their lines, rather their goal is to read them as they would be spoken naturally, with correct expression, phrasing, smoothness etc (Fluency PPT)
§ The excitement of performing in front of an audience often is motivation for students to practice reading their lines multiple times, which significantly helps them improve their fluency (Martinez, M., Roser, N. L., Strecker, S., 1998/1999)
§ Students also benefit from analyzing the situation and characters to determine what types of expression and emotion to convey in their reading (Martinez, M., Roser, N. L., Strecker, S., 1998/1999)
§ With this activity practicing reading the same text repeatedly does not seem as much like a boring chore, but rather an exciting means of rehearsal for their performance
§ Fluency instruction is typically effective
§ Assisted approaches are more beneficial than unassisted approaches
· Assisted reading is more effective than repeated reading (Mckenna & Stahl, 2009, p. 154)
§ Productive fluency instruction includes features of prosody such as rhythm and expression
* To help students improve their fluency it is important that teachers give them appropriate texts to read in terms of their reading abilities and expose them to strategies that will help them develop better fluency (Fluency PPT)
§ Strategies/instruction that improves oral reading fluency include:
· Teacher modeling of fluent reading
· Opportunities to participate in guided oral reading
· Opportunities for easy materials to be read independently by students
* Some instructional strategies for fluency that can be used in the classroom include:
§ Echo Reading
· The teacher reads a section of the text out loud while the students read silently along, then when the teacher is finished the students echo the section back (Mckenna & Stahl, 2009, p. 154)
§ Repeated Reading
· Students read the same text over and over until they reach a particular level of fluency (Mckenna & Stahl, 2009, p. 154)
§ Tape Reading
· A long passage is read by a teacher and recorded on tape. The student reads along with the tape until they are able to read the story fluently and then they read to the teacher who determines whether the reading is acceptable in terms of fluency (Mckenna & Stahl, 2009, p. 155)
§ Paired Reading
· An adult partners with a struggling reader and begins reading the passage in a book chosen by both participants. The adult and struggling reader start by reading together and the student will tap the adults arm when they feel comfortable reading aloud themselves. When they make a mistake the adult helps them and then they start to read simultaneously again until the reader signals that they are ready to read solo again (Mckenna & Stahl, 2009, p. 157)
* One entertaining and engaging instructional strategy for improving readers' fluency is through Readers Theater
§ Children are assigned roles in a play and repeatedly practice reading their speaking parts in the play
§ There are no props used and the readers are not supposed to memorize their lines, rather their goal is to read them as they would be spoken naturally, with correct expression, phrasing, smoothness etc (Fluency PPT)
§ The excitement of performing in front of an audience often is motivation for students to practice reading their lines multiple times, which significantly helps them improve their fluency (Martinez, M., Roser, N. L., Strecker, S., 1998/1999)
§ Students also benefit from analyzing the situation and characters to determine what types of expression and emotion to convey in their reading (Martinez, M., Roser, N. L., Strecker, S., 1998/1999)
§ With this activity practicing reading the same text repeatedly does not seem as much like a boring chore, but rather an exciting means of rehearsal for their performance
Child Study and Fluency
* In order to assess my child study student's fluency I had her read a passage on a topic that was familiar to her, (Martin Luther King Jr.) (Leslie, L, & Caldwell, J.S, 2011, p. 292-294) at the 5th grade level, her instructional level of reading (which I had previously determined through the administration of QRI passages) and recorded her while she read. I then listened to the recording of her reading and marked her miscues and used the time she took to read the passage to determine her rate of reading and her accuracy. She read the passage at a rate of 96 words correct per minute and 99% accuracy
§ From these results I looked at the Hasbrouck and Tindal's (2006) Oral Reading Fluency Data chart (Mckenna & Stahl, 2009, p.152) and found that my student is between the 10th and 25th percentile for 5th graders for reading rate, which is below average.
§ I also listened to her recorded reading and assessed its prosody using the Multidimensional Fluency Scale (Mckenna & Stahl, 2009, p. 150) and rated her 1 for expression and volume, 2 for both phrasing and smoothness, and 3 for pace, giving an overall score of 8 which indicates that fluency may be a concern
* Because my student exhibited such poor fluency, particularly in the prosody component, I thought that a Reader's Theater lesson in which we would read an Amelia Bedelia script that we would eventually perform for her family would be appropriate
* My student's fluency improved a lot with repeated readings and discussions about the characters emotions and how to reflect those emotions in our readings of the script. The activity was a really good way to make sure that she had to work on her prosody in her reading because there was the pressure of performing it and knowing that it needed to sound like natural speech would sound in the context of the story
§ From these results I looked at the Hasbrouck and Tindal's (2006) Oral Reading Fluency Data chart (Mckenna & Stahl, 2009, p.152) and found that my student is between the 10th and 25th percentile for 5th graders for reading rate, which is below average.
§ I also listened to her recorded reading and assessed its prosody using the Multidimensional Fluency Scale (Mckenna & Stahl, 2009, p. 150) and rated her 1 for expression and volume, 2 for both phrasing and smoothness, and 3 for pace, giving an overall score of 8 which indicates that fluency may be a concern
* Because my student exhibited such poor fluency, particularly in the prosody component, I thought that a Reader's Theater lesson in which we would read an Amelia Bedelia script that we would eventually perform for her family would be appropriate
* My student's fluency improved a lot with repeated readings and discussions about the characters emotions and how to reflect those emotions in our readings of the script. The activity was a really good way to make sure that she had to work on her prosody in her reading because there was the pressure of performing it and knowing that it needed to sound like natural speech would sound in the context of the story